The
Order of the Qur'an's Revelation and
the Growth of the Qur'anic Sciences
The Order in which the Verses of the Qur'an were Revealed
That the chapters and verses were
not revealed in one place but rather in stages over a period of twenty-three years during
the Prophet's mission is authenticated not only by historical evidence but also from
evidence from the various verses. In XVII:106 we read: "And it is a Qur'an that we
have divided that you ma y recite it to mankind at intervals and we have revealed it by
(successive) revelations." As further proof there are abrogating and abrogated
verses which are directly related to events from different periods and circumstances and
which obviously were not revealed at one time.
At this point we should note that
the chapters and verses were not revealed in the order in which they are set out; that is
the first chapter "al-Fatihah" (The Opening) was revealed after "The
Cow", "The Family of 'Imran," "Women," and "The Table
Spread." This is true also for the order of the verses which do not necessarily
follow chronologically. The content of a Qur'anic text may for example show that the
content of some chapters and verses concord with the first period of the Prophet's mission
- like the chapters "The Clot," and "Nun," but are recorded at the end
of the Qur'an.
Many chapters and verses which
correspond to the time after the migration like "The Cow," "The Family of
'Imran," "Women," "The Spoils" and "Repentance" have
been placed at the beginning of the Qur'an.
The contents of the chapters and
verses are thus directly related to the events, circumstances and different needs of the
period of the Prophet's mission: the chapter and verses which only deal with the calling
of the polytheists to belief in God's oneness and the struggle against the
idol-worshippers correspond to a time before the migration when the Prophet was inviting
the people to Islam in Mecca.
The verses dealing with battles
and those dealing with social laws were revealed after the events and circumstances
associated with the establishment and progress of the Islamic society in Medina.
Conclusions to be Drawn
We may divide the chapters and
Qur'anic verses according to the place, time and circumstance of their revelation:
Some of the chapters and verses
are Meccan and some Medinan; usually those revealed before the Prophet's migration are
counted as Meccan. The majority of the chapters, and especially the shorter ones, are of
this type. Those revealed after the migration are counted as Medinan even though they may
have been revealed outside Medina or even in Mecca.
Some chapters and verses were
revealed while the Prophet was travelling and some while he was resident in a place. The
verses are also divided according to whether they were revealed by day or by night, in
peace or in war, or when the Prophet was on earth or in the heavens, or whether he was
alone or with others. In the light of these different classifications we may study the
reasons for the revelations.
Some chapters were revealed more
than once such as the chapter "al-Fatihah," which was revealed once in Mecca and
once in Medina. Some verses were revealed several times like, "Which is it of the
favours o f your Lord do you deny," in the chapter "The Beneficent"
which is repeated thirty times, and the verse, "And indeed your Lord He is truly
the Mighty, the Merciful," which is repeated eight times.
Sometimes one verse occurs in
more than one chapter such as "they say: when is the fulfillment of promise, if
you are truthful." We find, too, that a sentence appears as a complete verse in
one chapter and as part of another verse elsewhere; for example, the sentence, "Allah!
there is no God save Him, The Alive, The Eternal," is a complete verse in the
beginning of "The Family of 'Imran," Yet, in "The Cow" it is part of
the "al-Kursi" verse. Most chapters and verses, however, were revealed in one
place at one time and do not recur in the Book.
Similar verses appear in
different places in the Qur'an because of certain subjects which demand repetition. One of
the significant features of the Qur'an is the difference in the length of the chapters. We
may compare "Abundance" (the shortest chapter) and "The Cow" (the
longest).
Likewise we may compare the
length of verses, with the shortest being the single arabic word "mudhammatan"
(dark green with foliage) and the longest, composed of thirty sentences being the two
hundred and eighty-second verse of "The Cow" (whose subject concerns debt).
All these differences are in
accordance with the demands of the revelation. Sometimes it happens that two verses are
closely connected in meaning but differ greatly in length; for example, the thirtieth and
thirty-first verses of "The Cloaked One", the first being a single sentence and
the second more than eleven sentences.
We should not forget that most of
the shorter verses like "The Dawn" and "The Night" are Meccan, and
those whose subject matter is treated in greater length and detail are Medinan. The first
verse to be revealed to the Prophet was during the revelation of the first five verses of
"The Clot" and the last to be revealed was verse 281 of "The Cow": "And
guard yourselves against a day in which you will be brought back to Allah. Then every soul
will be paid in full that which it has earned and they will not be wronged."
The Reasons for the Revelations
Many of the verses are connected
with events and circumstances which took place as the Prophet. called the people to Islam,
for example "The Cow".41
Other chapters, like "The
Tribe", refer to the exile of the Banu al-Nadir and the chapter "The
Coursers" was revealed for the bedouin Arabs of the Dry Valley and other tribes. Some
chapters or verses were revealed because of the need to explain the laws and directions of
Islam; for example, the chapter "Women" which defined marriage and the
inheritance of women, "The Spirits" which explains how to deal with the
prisoners-of-war captured as booty and, the chapter "Divorce" which was
revealed, as its name suggests, to explain divorce.42
The circumstances leading to the
revelation of these chapters are called "reasons for revelation" and there are
countless traditions on this subject.
Amongst the Sunni's there are
many traditions which deal with the reasons for revelation; several thousand narrations
may be enumerated (although in the Shi'ah School only a few hundred may be counted). Many
of these are without a chain of narration and are not accepted as fully trustworthy;
moreover, a considerable number are classified as weak. The dubious nature of the majority
of these may be ascribed to the following reasons. Firstly, it is obvious from the form of
many of these sayings that the narrator had not learned them through oral transmission but
rather based on his own judgement, that the revelation of a certain verse was connected
with certain events. Thus the narrator links a certain event to a verse of suitable
meaning mentioned in the tradition.
This is a subjective view,
carried out through ijtihad or personal reflection upon the matter, and not the
actual reason for revelation learned orally through transmission from the Prophet. As
proof of this argument, we may cite many inconsistencies amongst these traditions. There
are verses, for example, recorded as having several conflicting "reasons for
revelation" which are totally unconnected with each other.
Ibn 'Abbas, for example, who is
not alone in this practice, relates several "reasons for the revelation" of one
single verse. The existence of such conflicting reasons is because many have been arrived
at through subjective deliberation rather than transmitted directly from the Prophet. This
results in one narrator attributing a certain verse to a particular event while another
narrator attributes it to another event.
On other occasions a narrator
relates two different reasons for the revelation of one verse and thus implicates himself
.
in two conflicting views; then he
rejects the first view in favour of the second. We are led to conclude, moreover, that
most of these narrations are fabrications or deceitfully transmitted under the pretence of
trustworthy narrators. Such doubt concerning the validity of many of these traditions
greatly endangers their credibility.
Secondly, it has been related
with certainty that the early Caliphs strictly prohibited the recording and writing down
of the narrations and, whenever a sheet of paper or tablet was found on which a saying had
been written, it was burned. This prohibition lasted until nearly the end of the first
century after Hijrah, that is, for a period of about ninety years. The effect of
this prohibition was that the narrators and scholars of sayings were free to make small
additions or changes during oral transmission of the saying. These additions gradually
accumulated until the original meaning of the saying was lost.
This becomes very clear on
investigation of an event or subject which has been related by two different narrators;
one may come across a saying which describes an event and see the same event described in
a different way by another narrator. False sayings were not only introduced by attributing
them to respected narrators but also by the hypocrites. Their sayings soon became part of
the main body of sayings and this further undermined the credibility of this particular
section of the Science of tradition.
The Method Used in Describing "The Reasons for the Revelations"
Past scholars of Islam, and in
particular the Sunni scholars, attached great importance to the order of revelation of the
chapters. Among the narration on the subject is that of Ibn 'Abbas, who has said that "the
beginning of each chapter which was revealed in Mecca was recorded as having been revealed
in that very place, then God added what He wanted to it."43 The
following is the order of revelation of the Qur'an (beginning with the Meccan verses):
(1) Read in the name of your
Lord. (XCVI:1)
(2) Nun. (LXVIII:1)
(3) O, you wrapped up in your raiment. (LXXIII:1)
(4) O you wrapped up in your cloak. (LXXIV:1)
(5) The power of Abu Lahab will perish. (CXI:1)
(6) When the sun is overthrown. (LXXXI:1)
(7) Praise the name of your Lord, the Most High. (LXXXVII:1)
(8) By the night enshrouding. (XCII:1)
(9) By the Dawn. (LXXXIX:1)
(10) By the morning hours. (XCIII:1)
(11) Have we not caused your breast to expand. (XCIV:1)
(12) By the declining day. (CIII:1)
(13) The Courses. (C:1)
(14) Indeed, we have given you abundance. (CVIII:1)
(15) Rivalry in worldly increase distracts you. (CII:1)
(16) Have you observed him who denies the din. (CVII:1)
(17) Say: O disbelievers! (CIX:1)
(18) Have you not seen your Lord dealt with the owners of the elephant. (CV:1)
(19) Say: I seek refuge in the Lord of the daybreak. (CXIII:1)
(20) Say: I seek refuge in the Lord of Mankind. (CXIV:1)
(21) Say: He is God, the One (CXII:1)
(22) By the Star. (LIII:1)
(23) He Frowned. (LXXX:1)
(24) Indeed we have revealed it on the Night of Power. (XCVII:1)
(25) By the Sun and its brightness. (XCI:1)
(26) By the heaven, holding mountains of the stars. (LXXXV:1)
(27) By the Fig. (XCV:1)
(28) For the Taming of the Quraish. (CVI:1)
(29) The Calamity. (CI:1)
(30) No, I swear by the Day of Resurrection. (LXXV:1)
(31) Woe to every slandering traducer. (CIV:1)
(32) By the emissary winds (LXXVII:1)
(33) Qaf (L:1)
(34) No, I swear by this city. (XC:1)
(35) By the heaven and the morning star. (LXXXVI:1)
(36) The hour drew near. (LIV:1)
(37) Sad. (XXXVIII:1)
(38) The Heights. (VII:1)
(39) Say (O Muhammad): it is revealed . . . (LXXII:1)
(40) Ya Sin. (XXXVI:1)
(41) The Criterion. (XXV:1)
(42) The Angels. (XXXV:1)
(43) Kaf Ha Ya 'Ayn Sad. (XIX:1)
(44) Ta'ha'. (XX:1)
(45) The Reality. (LVI:1)
(46) Ta Sin Mim (The Poets). (XXVI:1)
(47) Ta sin. (XXVII:1)
(48) The Story. (XXVIII:1)
(49) The Children of Israel. (XVII:1)
(50) Jonah. (X:1)
(51) Hud. (XI:1)
(52) Joseph. (XII:1)
(53) The Exile. (XV:1)
(54) The Cattle. (VI:1)
(55) Those who set the ranks. (XXXVI:1)
(56) Luqman. (XXXI:1)
(57) Saba. (XXXIV:1)
(58) The Troops. (XXXIX:1)
(59) Ha Mim (The Believers). (XL:1)
(60) Ha Mim (The Prostration of Fussilat). (XLI:1)
(61) Ha Mim 'Ayn Sin Qaf (XLII:1)
(62) Ha Mim Ornaments of Gold. (XLIII:1)
(63) Smoke. (XLIV:1)
(64) Crouching. (XLVI:1)
(65) The Wind Curved Sandhills. (XLVI:1)
(66) The Winnowing Winds. (LI:1)
(67) The Overwhelming. (LXXXVIII:1)
(68) The Cave. (XVIII:1)
(69) The Bee. (XVI:1)
(70) Indeed We Sent Noah. (LXXI:1)
(71) Abraham. (XIV:1)
(72) The Prophets. (XXI:1)
(73) The Believers. (XXIII:1)
(74) The Prostration. (XXXII:1)
(75) Mount Sinai. (LII:1)
(76) The Sovereignty. (LXVII:1)
(77) The Reality. (LXIX:1)
(78) A Questioner Questioned. (LXX:1)
(79) About What do They question one another. (LXXVIII:1)
(80) Those who drag forth. (LXXIX:1)
(81) When the heaven is cleft apart. (LXXXII:1)
(82) When the heaven is split asunder. (LXXXIV:1)
(83) The Romans. (XXX:1)
(84) The Spider. (XXIX:1)
(85) Woe to the defrauders. (LXXXIII:1)
(86) The Cow. (II:1)
(87) The Spoils of War. (VIII:1)
(88) The Family of 'Imran. (III:1)
(89) The Clans. (XXXIII:1)
(90) She That is to be examined. (LX:1)
(91) Women. (IV:1)
(92) When the earth is shaken. (XCIX:1)
(93) Iron. (LVII:1)
(94) Muhammad. (LXLVII:1)
(95) The Thunder. (XIII:1)
(96) The Beneficent. (LV:1)
(97) Man. (LXXVI:1)
(98) Divorce. (LXV:1)
(99) The Clear Proof (XCVIII:1)
(100) Exile. ( LIX:1)
(101) When God's help arrives. (CX:1)
(102) Light. (XXIV:1)
(103) The Pilgrimage. (XXII:1)
(104) The Hypocrites. (LXIII:1)
(105) She that Disputes. (LVIII:1)
(106) The Private Apartments. (XLIX:1)
(107) Banning. (LXVI:1)
(108) The Congregation. (LXII:1)
(109) Mutual Disillusion. (LXIV:1)
(110) The Ranks. (LXI:1)
(111) Victory. (XLVIII:1)
(112) The Table Spread. (V:1)
(113) The Immunity (Repentance). (IX:1)
Further Traditions Concerning the Order and Place of Revelation of the Chapters
The tradition of Ibn 'Abbas
mentions one hundred and thirteen chapters, the chapter "al-Fatihah" not being
counted among them. There is another saying, related by al-Bayhaqi from 'Ikrimah44,
which enumerates one hundred and eleven chapters, the three chapters
"al-Fatihah," "The Heights," and "Counsel" not being
mentioned. When al-Bayhaqi relates this same tradition from Ibn 'Abbas it includes all one
hundred and fourteen chapters. The tradition of al-Bayhaqi reckons "The
Defrauders" as one of the Medinan chapters in opposition to the other traditions
which count it as Meccan. The order mentioned in these two traditions for both the Meccan
and Medinan chapters is different from that of other traditions.
Another tradition, related from
'Ali ibn Abi Talhah,45 says: The chapter "The Cow" was revealed in
Medina and "The Family of 'Imran," "Women," "The Table
Spread," "Spirits of War," "Repentance," "The
Pilgrimage," "Light," "The Clans," "Those Who Deny,"
"Victory," "Iron," "She That Disputes," "Exile,"
"She That Is To Be Examined," "The Helpers of Allah (The Ranks),"
"Mutual Disillusion," "O Prophet if you divorce women," "O
Prophet why do you ban," "The Dawn," "The Night," "We have
revealed it in the night of power," "The Clear Proof," "When the earth
shakes," "When the help of Allah comes," and the rest of the chapters were
revealed in Mecca.
The intention of the tradition
seems only to establish the difference between the Medinan and Meccan chapters and to
define the order of revelation of the chapters mentioned. The chapters "Table
Spread" and "Repentance" are, without doubt, later in revelation than that
indicated in this tradition. Moreover, chapters "The Dawn," "The
Night," and "The Night of Power," are counted as Medinan chapters, whereas
the above tradition counts them as Meccan. Likewise, "The Thunder," "The
Beneficent," "Man," "The Congregation," "The Private
Apartments" are considered as Meccan, whereas in the above tradition they are counted
as Medinan.
In another tradition related by
Qatadah,46 "The Cow," "The Family of 'Imran,"
"Women," "The Table Spread," "Immunity," "The
Thunder," "The Bee," "The Pilgrimage," "The Light,"
"The Clans," "Muhammad," "Victory," "The Private
Apartments," "Iron," "The Beneficent," "She that
disputes," "Exile," "She that is to be Examined," "The
Ranks," "The Congregation," "The Hypocrites," "Mutual
Disillusion," "Divorce," the first thirteen verses of "O You Prophet!
Why do you ban," "When the earth Shakes" and "When the help of Allah
comes," were revealed in Medina and the rest in Mecca. This tradition is contrary to
the previous traditions and, in particular, with regard to the mention of "The
Defrauders," "Man," and "The Clear Proof."
This tradition is, however,
unacceptable according to the Science of traditions, being disconnected from direct
transmission from the Prophet. It is also unclear whether Ibn 'Abbas learned of the order
of revelation from the Prophet himself or from some other unidentified person, or arrived
at it by subjective decision.
If the latter is the case, it has
no value or authenticity but for himself. It has also no value historically, as Ibn 'Abbas
did not have close contact with the Prophet. It is obvious that he could not have been
present nor a witness to the revelation of all these chapters. Even if we suppose the
tradition to be true, it is still not totally acceptable in matters outside the law of the
shari'ah.
The only way to discover the true
order of the chapters, and whether they are Meccan or Medinan, is to examine the content
of the chapters and to compare them with the circumstances and social reality before and
after the migration. Such a method is effective in certain cases; the content of chapters
"Man," "The Coursers," and the "Defrauders" testify to their
being Medinan, although some of these traditions only establish them as Meccan.
The Gathering of the Qur'an into One Volume (Before the Death of the Prophet)
The influence of the Qur'an.
which was revealed in separate chapters and verses, increased day by day. Its eloquence
and miraculous clarity transfixed the Arabs who attached great importance to fine
language; they came from far and wide to hear and learn a few verses from the Prophet.
However, the notables of Mecca and the leaders of Quraysh, who were idolators and bitter
enemies of the Prophet and of Islam, tried to prevent the people from getting close to the
Prophet; they tried to frighten off the Arabs by . telling them the Qur'an was magic.
Despite this people came, unknown
to friends, family and servants, in the dark of night to a place near the Prophet's house
and listened to the Prophet reading the Qur'an.
The efforts of the early Muslims
in listening to, memorizing and recording the Qur'an were stimulated by another motive:
they valued the Qur'an as a sacred document, being the word of God; they were also obliged
to read the chapter "al-Fatihah" and a portion of another part of the Qur'an
during their prayers. It was also the Qur'an through which the Prophet had been commanded
to instruct people in the laws of Islam.
This study and devotion to the
Qur'an became more ordered and comprehensive after the Prophet emigrated to Medina and
formed an independent Muslim community. He ordered a considerable number of the companions
to recite the Qur'an and to learn and teach the laws which were being revealed daily. So
important was this activity that, according to special permission granted by God in
chapter "Repentance," verse 122, these scholars were relieved of their
obligation to fight jihad (so called Holy War).
Since most of the Prophet's
companions, (in particular those who had emigrated from Mecca to Medina), were unable to
read or write, the Prophet ordered them to learn from the Jewish prisoners-of-war the
simple writing of the time. Thus a group of the companions gradually became literate.
Those of this group who engaged
in the recitation of the Qur'an, learning by heart the chapters and verses were called qurra';
it was from amongst this group that forty (some report seventy) died as martyrs in an
accident called Bi'r Ma'unah.
The Qur'an was recorded, as it
was revealed, on tablets, bones and the wide flat end of the date palm fronds. There is no
doubt that most chapters were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in
numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shi'ah sources, relating the Prophet's use of
the Qur'an as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation.
Similarly, one comes across names
of chapters in traditions which describe the time when the Prophet was still alive, namely
the very long chapters and "al-Fatihah".
After the Death of the Prophet
After the death of the Prophet,
'Ali who, (according to a tradition of absolute authority), was more knowledgeable of the
Qur'an than any other man, retired to his house and compiled the Qur'an in one volume in
the order corresponding to its revelation. Before six months had elapsed after the death
of the Prophet, the volume was completed and carried by camel to show to other people.
Just about a year after the death
of the Prophet, the war of Yamamah took place in which seventy of the reciters were killed
and the Caliphs conceived the idea of collecting the different chapters and verses into
one volume. They feared that should a future battle take place and the rest of the qurra'
be killed, the whole Qur'an would disappear with them.
Thus, on the orders of the
Caliph, a group of the qurra' from amongst the companions including Zayd ibn
Thabit, collected the chapters and verses (written on tablets, bones and date palm fronds
and kept in the Prophet's house or the houses of reciters), and produced several
hand-written copies of the complete Book. They then sent copies of this compilation to all
areas of the Muslim domain.
After a time, during the rule of
the third Caliph, it came to the attention of the Caliph himself that differences and
inconsistencies were appearing in the copying down of the Qur'an; some calligraphers
lacked precision in their writing and some reciters were not accurate in their recitation.
Since the word of God seemed
threatened with alteration, the Caliph ordered that five of the qurra' from amongst
the companions, (one of them being Zayd ibn Thabit who had compiled the first volume),
produce other copies from the first volume which had been prepared on the orders of the
first Caliph and which had been kept with Hafsah, the wife of the Prophet and daughter of
the second Caliph.
The other copies, already in the
hands of Muslims in other areas, were collected and sent to Medina where, on orders of the
Caliph, they were burnt (or, according to some historians, were destroyed by boiling).
Thus several copies were made, one being kept in Medina, one in Mecca, and one each sent
to Sham (a territory now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan), Kufa and
Basra.
It is said that beside these
five, one copy was also sent to Yemen and one to Bahrain. These copies were called the
Imam copies and served as original for all future copies. The only difference of order
between these copies and the first volume was that the chapters "Spirits of War"
and "Immunity" were written in one place between "The Heights" and
"Jonah."
The Importance Muslims Attached to the Qur'an
As we have pointed out above, the
verses and chapters of the Qur'an were in oral use amongst Muslims at the time of its
first and second compilation into one volume. They were extremely careful in preserving
what they had learnt by heart.
Moreover, a large group of
companions and their followers were engaged only in recitation and learning the Qur'an by
heart. The collecting together of the Qur'an into one volume took place under their
scrutiny. They all accepted, without objection, the volume when it was given to them and
then made copies of it.
It happened that when some men
tried to record verse 34 in "Repentance," "And those who hoard up gold and
silver" without the "and" in the 'Uthmanic (second compilation) volume,
they were prevented from doing so. The companion Ubayy ibn Ka'b swore that if anyone left
out the "and" he would fight him with the sword.
As a result, the word
"And" was recorded. One day the second Caliph, during the time of his own
caliphate, read the verse,
And the first to lead the way
o f the Muhajirun and Ansar and those who follow them in goodness [IX:100]
without the word "and";
he was opposed and forced in the end to read it with the "and".
The Qur'an that had been compiled
by 'Ali was rejected by several people when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made
no objection or resistance and accepted the Qur'an in circulation for as long as he lived,
even during the time of his own Caliphate.
Likewise, the Imams of the
Prophet's family, the successors and sons of the Prophet, did not mention their objection
to the Qur'an to the intimates amongst their Shi'ah followers. They always referred to the
Qur'an in common use and in their commentaries and ordered the followers to recite it as
the people did.
Ali's silence in the matter of
the difference of order between the two volumes was in keeping with the preference of the
Shi'ah Imams for commentary of the Qur'an by the Qur'an; for them the order of the Medinan
and Meccan chapters has no influence on the meanings of the Qur'an; commentary of each
verse is made by comparing it to another group of verses. Moreover the Qur'an is eternal
and valid for all times and places; such local and temporary particularities as this time,
place and circumstances of revelation can have no effect on the higher scale of meanings
contained in the Qur'an.
It is true that there are
benefits to be gained by knowing certain details of revelation; they help one to discern
the development of divine wisdom, social laws or stories of the past prophets and nations;
also an understanding of the reasons for revelation show how the call to Islam progressed
during the twenty-three years of the Prophet's mission.
We would like to make clear,
however, that it was in order to preserve the unity of the Muslims that caused the
Shi'ites to be silent in this matter.
The Qur'an is Protected from any Alteration
The transmission of the Qur'an,
from the day of its revelation up to the present day, is flawless. The chapters and verses
have been in constant use amongst Muslims and have been passed on perfectly intact from
one generation to the other. The Qur'an we know today is the same Qur'an which was
revealed to the Prophet some fourteen centuries ago.
The Qur'an does not stand in need
of historical proof for its identity or authenticity, (although history too confirms its
validity). Since a book which claims to be the actual unalterable word of God and attests
to this in its own text, does not need to resort to others to prove its authenticity.
The clearest proof that the
Qur'an we have with us today is the same that was revealed to the Prophet and that no
alteration has taken place in its text is that very superiority which the Qur'an claimed
for itself at the time of its revelation and which still exists. The Qur'an says that it
is a book of light and guidance, a book which shows man the truth and reality of
existence; it says that it explains all things, that is, everything necessary for man to
live in accordance with his own natural character. it says that it is the word of God and
challenges man and jinn to produce similar words; it invites them to find someone like the
Prophet, who could neither read nor write and grew up in an age of ignorance as an orphan
without instruction; the Qur'an challenges them to find any inconsistency in its method,
Sciences, or laws, such as one might find in any ordinary book. They obviously cannot for
the superiority of the Qur'an remains after its revelation.
Likewise, the guidance for man
contained in the Qur'an is still valid; it still expounds a complete world view which is
in accord with the purest of intellectual proofs and is the source of man's well being in
this world and in the next. By the benevolence and care shown by the Creator for His
creation in the Book, it still invites man to belief.
The Qur'an cares for the needs of
man by giving him a vision of reality based on Divine Unity. All knowledge and belief
spring from this view of reality. At no point does the Qur'an fail to explain in the most
comprehensive fashion the reality of this oneness.
It devotes much attention to
explaining the behavior and transactions expected of the individual in society and shows
how correct action is that which accords with the natural character and capability (fitrah)
of man. The Qur'an leaves the detailed description of man's behaviour to the Prophet whose
daily life was an example of how man was to apply what was contained in the Qur'an.
Together the Book of God and the
example (or Sunnah) of the Prophet delineated an astoundingly comprehensive
life-pattern for man, namely, the way of living in tune with the reality which is Islam.
The Qur'an deals precisely with all aspects of individual and social life and, despite
having been revealed in another age, does not contain the slightest inconsistency or
incompatibility even today. It describes a din, a comprehensive way of life, whose
programme of living is beyond the imagination of the world's most capable lawyers and
sociologists.
The miracle of the Qur'an has in
it clarity and eloquence, rooted, as it is, in the language of a nation famed for the
purity and power of its language. The Qur'an is a miraculous sun whose light shines far
brighter than the finest poetry of the time, indeed of any age. During the Islamic
conquests of the first century after Hijra, the resulting admixing of non-Arabic words
with the Arabic lessened the purity of Arabic language used in the Qur'an causing it to
disappear from the every-day speech of the people.
The Qur'an does not merely
challenge man by the use of its language but also by the depth of its meaning. Those
familiar with the Arabic language (both prose and verse writings) are reduced to silence
and astonishment when they attempt to describe it.
The Qur'an is neither poetry nor
prose but rather seems to draw qualities from both; it is more attractive and dazzling
than poetry and clearer and more flowing than prose. A single verse or phrase from the
Qur'an is more illuminating, more penetrating, and more profound than the complete speech
of most eloquent speakers.
The profundity of meaning in the
Qur'an remains as miraculous as ever; its complex structure of beliefs, morals and laws
stands as proof that the Qur'an is the word of God. Man, and in particular someone who was
born and raised in circumstances similar to those of the Prophet, could never have created
such a system; the Qur'an is a harmonious whole despite having been revealed during
twenty-three years in greatly varying circumstances.
God Himself confirms that the
Qur'an has been preserved from change; in chapter XV:9 He says, "Indeed We, even
We, reveal the Reminder and indeed We are truly its guardian," and in chapter
XLI:41-42 He says, "for indeed it is an unassailable Book. Falsehood can not come
at it from before or behind it. (It is) a revelation from the Wise, the M[---] of
Praise." Only a divine Book could remain preserved for fourteen centuries in a
world where the enemies of truth and of Islam are numerous.
The Recitation, Memorization and Transmission of the Qur'an
There were a number of reciters
engaged in learning and teaching the Qur'an in Medina. Anyone learning from one of them
would transmit that individual's particular style of recitation when he transmitted it to
others as a tradition. Various ways of recitation occur. One may attribute this, firstly,
to the fact that the script used at the time was the kufic style and had no diacritical
points; each word could be read in various ways!
Secondly, most people were
illiterate and, when learning the Qur'an, had no alternative but to commit it to memory
and transmit it orally. This method continued to be used for many generations.
The Different Groups of Reciters
The first group of reciters were
those companions who were engaged in learning and teaching the Qur'an during the time of
the Prophet. Among them was a group which mastered the whole Qur'an; one of this group was
a woman by the name of Umm Waraqah bint 'Abd Allah ibn Harith.
Study was also undertaken by four
of the Ansars (or helpers, that is Medinans who became Muslim and welcomed the Muslims
from Mecca). They learned the whole Qur'an by heart but were not concerned with the
ordering of the verses and chapters; other scholars were responsible for memorisation of
the order.
Some traditions say that the
position of each verse and chapter was defined at the orders of the Prophet himself but
this is generally refuted by the rest of the traditions.
According to some later scholars,
(namely al-Suyuti in his book al-Itqan, in the chapter dealing with the qualities
of the men responsible for transmission), several of the qurra' became famous,
among them 'Uthman, 'Ali, Ubayy ibn Ka'b, Zayd ibn Thabit, 'Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud and Abu
Musa al-Ash'ari.
The second group of reciters were
the students of the first group. They were generally tabi'un (followers of the
companions of the Prophet) and the more famous amongst them had centres of recitation and
teaching in Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Sham. The 'Uthmanic volume was used in these
five places.
In Mecca were 'Ubayd ibn 'Amir
and 'Ata' ibn Abi Rabah, Ta'us, Mujahid, 'Ikrimah ibn Abi Mulaykah and others. In Medina
were Ibn Musayyib, 'Urwah, Salim, 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz, Sulayman ibn Yasar, 'Ata' ibn
Yasar, Mu'adh al-Qari', 'Abd Allah ibn al-A'raj, Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, Muslim ibn Jundub
and Zayd ibn Aslam.
In Kufa were 'Alqamah, al-Aswad,
Masruq, 'Ubaydah, 'Amr ibn Shurahbil, Harith ibn al-Qays, 'Amr ibn Maymun, Abu 'Abd
al-Rahman al-Sulami, Zarr ibn Hubaysh, 'Ubayd ibn Naflah, Sa'id ibn Jubayr, al-Nakha'i,
al-Sha'bi, Abu al-'Aliyah, Abu al-Raja' Nasr ibn al-'Asim, Yahya ibn Ya'mur, Hasan
al-Basri, Ibn Sirin, Qatadah, Mughirah ibn Abi Shihab, 'Uthman, Khalifah ibn Sa'd, Abu
Darda'.
The third group lived during the
first half of the second century after Hijrah; it included a number of Imams famous
for their Qur'anic recitation who received this knowledge from the second group. In Mecca
were 'Abd Allah ibn Kathir (one of the seven qurra'), Humayd ibn Qays al-A'raj and
Muhammad ibn Abi Muhaysin. In Medina were, Abu Ja'far Yazid ibn al-Qa'qa', Shaybah ibn
Nassah and Nafi ibn Nu'aym (one of the seven qurra').
In Kufa were Yahya ibn Waththab,
'Asim ibn Abi al-Najjud (one of the seven qurra'), Sulayman al-A'mash, Hamzah (one
of the seven qurra') and al-Kisa'i (also one of the seven reciters). In Basra were
'Abd Allah ibn Abi Ishaq, 'Isa ibn 'Umar, Abu 'Amr ibn al-'Ala' (one of the seven
reciters), 'Asim al-Jahdari and Ya'qub al-Hadrami. In Sham 'Abd Allah ibn 'Amir (one of
the seven reciters), 'Atiyah ibn Qays al-Kalla'i, Isma'il ibn 'Abd Allah ibn Muhajir,
Yahya ibn Harith and Shurayh. ibn Yazid al-Hadrami.
The fourth group consisted of the
students of the third group, like Ibn 'Ayyash, Hafs and Khalaf and many of the most famous
may be classed in the next section.
The fifth group comprised those
concerned with academic research and writing including Abu 'Ubayd Qasim ibn Salam, Ahmad
ibn Jubayr al-Kufi and Isma'il ibn Ishaq al-Maliki from the companions of Qalun al-Rawi.
Included also are Abu Ja'far ibn Jarir al-Tabari and Mujahid. The field of research was
widened after them by w men like al-Dani47 and al-Shatibi48 who
wrote a great number of books on poetry.
The Seven Reciters
Seven members of the third group
achieved considerable celebrity; they became a focus of learning for others. Each of the
reciters appointed two narrators who each propagated a particular style of recitation. The
following is a list of these seven:
First Ibn al-Kathir,49
whose narrators were Qanbal and al-Bazzi, with only one intermediate relator in the chain
from Ibn 'Abbas from the leader of the Faithful, 'Ali. The second was Nafi'50
and his narrators Qalun and Warsh. The third was 'Asim51 and his narrators were
Abu Bakr Shu'bah ibn al-'Ayyash and Hafs; the Qur'an recitation which is in common use
among Muslims today is according to the reading of 'Asim by a narration of Hafs. The
fourth was Hamzah52 and his narrators were Khalaf and Khallad. The fifth was
al-Kisa'i53 and his narrators were al-Dawri and Abu 'Ali al-Harith. The sixth
was Abu 'Amr ibn al-'Ala'54; and his narrators al-Dawri and al-Susi with one
intermediate narrator. The seventh was Ibn 'Amir55 and his narrators were
Hisham56 and Ibn Dhakwan with one intermediary narrator.
Following the seven famous
recitations are the three recitations of Abu Ja'far57, Ya'qub58 and
Khalaf59.
The majority of Scholars
recognize the seven types of recitation as mutawatir, that is, as having been
related in unbroken chains of transmissions. One group of narrators have equated the
tradition that the Qur'an was revealed in seven harf (literally, "word"
in Arabic), with the seven different recitations; this tradition is well known amongst
Muslim scholars in general but is not recognised as being trustworthy.60
Al-Zarkshi61 says in
his book al-Burhan, "It is true that these seven recitations from the seven
reciters have come to us via unbroken chain of transmission but their chain of
transmission from the Prophet are open to inspection, since the chains of transmission of
the seven reciters are all of the type of single transmission, that is, related by one
single man to another single man."
Al-Makki says in his book, "Anyone
who imagines that the recitation of such men as Nafi' and 'Asim are the same seven 'harf'
mentioned in the saying of the Prophet is committing a grave mistake." Moreover,
the implication of this saying is that recitations, other than these seven, are not
correct; this also is a grave mistake since early Islamic Scholars like Abu 'Ubayd
al-Qasim ibn Salam and Abu Hatim al-Sijistani, Abu Ja'far al-Tabari and Isma'il al-Qadi
have recorded several other recitations besides these seven.
At the beginning of the second
century A.H. the people of Basra used the recitation of Abu 'Amr and Ya'qub and in Kufa
the recitations of Hamzah and 'Asim. In Sham they used that of Ibn 'Amir and in Mecca that
of Ibn Kathir. In Medina that of Nafi' was used. This situation remained unchanged until
the beginning of the third century A.H. when Ibn Mujahid removed the name of Ya'qub and
put the name of al-Kisa'i in his place.
The reason why scholars paid so
much attention to the seven reciters, despite there being many others of equal or better
standing, was that the number of recitations had multiplied so quickly that they lost
interest in learning and recording all the traditions about recitation. Thus they decided
to choose several of the recitations which complied with the orthography of the Qur'an and
which were easier to learn and record.
Thus for the five copies of the
Qur'an which 'Uthman had sent to the towns of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Sham, five
reciters were chosen from the five areas and their recitations were then used. Ibn Jubayr
writes about these five recitations from the five forms. Ibn Mujahid records a tradition
which asserts that 'Uthman sent two other copies to Yemen and Bahrain, that the number of
'Uthman copies thus numbered seven and that they chose seven narrators.
Since precise information about
this tradition (which states that copies were sent to Yemen and Bahrain) was not
available, they added two of the reciters of Kufa, to make up the number they had
previously chosen, to seven. This number, which corresponds with the above-mentioned
saying and affirmed that the Qur'an was revealed in seven recitations, was then used by
others who had no knowledge of the matter. They mistakenly supposed that what was meant by
the seven harf which the Prophet spoke of, was the seven recitations. The only
trustworthy recitations are those whose text is sound and whose meaning corresponds to
what is written in the Qur'an.
Al-Qurab says in his al-Shafi,
"We should look for the seven recitations amongst the qurra' not from among
others." This view is neither tradition nor sunnah but rather it originated from some
of the later Scholars who collected the seven recitations. These seven recitations became
so well known that people imagined that other recitations should not be used. This
however, has never been claimed.
The Number of Verses in the Qur'an
The enumeration and delineation
of the verses date from the time of the Prophet. In a saying the Prophet mentions ten
verses from the "Family of 'Imran," seven in the chapter "al-Fatihah"
and thirty in the chapter "The Sovereignty."
There are six views concerning
the total number of verses in the Qur'an, as related by al-Dani. Some have said that the
total is 6,000, some 6,204 and some 6,219. From these six estimations, two are from the
reciters of Medina and four from the other areas to which the 'Uthmanic copies were sent,
namely, Mecca, Kufa, Basra and Sham.
All these scholars support their
claims by traditions reaching back to the companions and thus not directly linked, in a
chain of transmissions, to the Prophet. Such traditions are called mawquf in the
science of the traditions.
From Medina, those who
specialized in enumeration and delineation of the verses, were Abu Ja'far Yazid ibn
al-Qa'qa', Shaybah ibn Nassah, Isma'il ibn Ja'far ibn Abi Kathir al-Ansari, Ibn Kathir,
Mujahid, Ibn 'Abbas, Ubayy ibn Ka'b, Hamzah, al-Kisa'i, Khalaf, Ibn Abi Layla, Abu 'Abd
al-Rahman al-Sulami, 'Ali, 'Asim ibn al-'Ajjaj al-Jahdari, Ibn Dhakwan, Hisham ibn 'Ammar.
The reason for the different
opinions concerning the total number of verses is related to the method of delineation and
separation of the verses and letters.
The Names of the Chapters
The division of the Qur'an into
chapters, like its division into verses, is mentioned in the Qur'an itself. In several
places God uses the actual words surah and ayat. In (XXIV:1) He says "(Here
is) a surah which we have revealed," in "Repentance", verse 86, "And
when a surah is revealed," in "The Cow" verse 23, "Then produce
a surah like it . . ." and other similar verses.
The name of the chapter is
sometimes derived from a name or form occurring in the chapter or from a subject treated
by the chapter; for example "The Cow", "The Family of 'Imran",
"The Night Journey" and "The Unity". We may note here that in the old
Qur'ans it is usual to observe the following at the beginning of each chapter:
"The surah in which the Cow is mentioned" or "the surah in which the
family of Imran is mentioned." Sometimes the chapter becomes known by its first
phrase; take for example, the chapter "Read in the name of your Lord" (or
"the Clot") or the chapter, "Truly we revealed it" (The Night
of Power) or the chapter "Those who disbelieve" (also called "The
Clear Proof").
Sometimes the chapter becomes
known by a certain position or quality it possesses; thus the chapter "The Opening of
the Book" or "The Mother of the Book" or "The Seven Oft-repeated
verses" (all describing the first chapter, or the "al-Fatihah"). The
chapter "The Unity" is also called by the name "al-Ikhlas" (meaning
that it describes the absolute unity of God) or by the name "Nisbat al-Rabb"
(meaning the chapter which describes the divine nature of the Lord in relation to the
slave). This method of naming the chapters was also used in the early days of Islam and is
attested to by the traditions.
There are traditions, whose
chains of authority reach back to the Prophet, which assert that the name of such chapters
as "The Cow", "The Family of 'Imran", "Hud" and "The
Event" were used by the Prophet himself. We may conclude from this that many of these
names came into being at the time of Prophet as a result of being in common use.
Calligraphy, Orthography and Diacritical Marks Used in the Qur'an
The first and second copies of
the Qur'an were written in Kufic script at the time of the Prophet. The very basic nature
of the script, without diacritical marks, was suitable for the reciters, relators and
scholars who had learned the Qur'an by heart, since only they knew the precise
pronunciation of the words. Others found great difficulty if they opened the Book and
tried to read correctly.
It was for this reason that at
the end of the first century after Hijrah Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali62, one
of the companions of 'Ali, with the guidance of the latter, wrote out the rules of the
Arabic language and on the orders of the Umayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Malik produced a Qura'nic
text with diacritical marks. This, to a certain extent, removed the difficulty of reading
the Kufic script.
Several difficulties remained,
however; the diacritical marks for vowels, for example, were for a time only points.
Instead of a fathah, a point was placed at the beginning of the letter and, instead
of kasrah, a point below and, for a dammah, a point above at the end of a
letter. This led to ambiguity. It was not till Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi set about
explaining the maddah, i.e. the lengthening of certain words, the doubling of
letters, the diacritical marks of vowelling and the pause, that the difficulty of reading
the script was finally removed.
Notes:
1. The second chapter (al-Baqarah)
descended in 1 A.H. in Medina. Some of its verses reproach the Jews who prevented the
progress of Islam and others are about the rituals like the qiblah, the month of
fasting, hajj, etc.
2. See Surah 4, 8 and 65 respectively.
3 Al-Suyuti, al-Itqan, vol. 1, p. 10 (quoting Fada'il al-Qur'an of Ibn
Daris).
4 Al-Suyuti, al-Itqan, vol. 1, p.10.
5 Al-Suyuti, ibid.
6 Al-Suyuti, ibid., vol. 1, p. 11.
7 Abu 'Amr 'Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Dani al-Andalusi, the author of many works including Kitab
al-taysir, died in 444 A.H.
8 Al-Qasim ibn Firruh al-Shatibi, a famous reciter and author of the celebrated al-Qasidah
al-Shatibiyah (1120 verses), died 590 A.H. (Kashf al-zunun).
9 'Abd Allah ibn Kathir al-Makki (d. 120 A.H.) received his instruction in the recitation
of the Qur'an from 'Abd Allah ibn al-Sa'ib and Mujahid.
10 Nafi' ibn 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Nu'aym al-Isfahani al-Madani (d. 159 or 169 A.H.) received
his instruction from Yazid ibn al-Qa'qa' and Abu Maymunah Mawla Umm Salmah.
11 Asim ibn Abi al-Najjud al-Kufi (d. 127 or 129 A.H.), a pupil, in the art of Qur'anic
recitation, of Sa'd ibn Ayyas al-Shaybani and Zarr ibn Hubaysh.
12 Hamzah ibn Habib al-Zayyat al-Tamimi al-Kufi (d. 156 A.H.) was a pupil of 'Asim,
A'mash, al-Sabi'i and Mansur ibn al-Mu'tamar. He also studies under the Sixth Imam
al-Sadiq and was the first to write about the mutashabihat of the Qur'an.
13 'Ali ibn Hamzah ibn 'Abd Allah ibn Fayruz al-Farisi (d. between 179-193 A.H.), a
grammarian and recitor of the Qur'an, was a teacher of the Caliphs al-Amin and al-Ma'mun.
He studied grammar under Yunus al-Nahwi and Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi and Qur'anic
recitation under Hamzah and Shu'ba ibn 'Ayyash.
14 Abu 'Amr Zabban ibn al-'Ala' al-Basri (d. between 154159 A.H.).
15 'Abd Allah ibn 'Amir al-Shafi'i al-Dimashqi (d. 118 A.H.) studied under Abu al-Darda'
and the companions of 'Uthman.
16 There are differences of opinion as to the names of rawah (transmitters) of Ibn
'Amir. Those mentioned above are given according to al-Suyuti's al-Itqan.
17 Abu Ja'far Yazid ibn al-Qa'qa' al-Madani (d. between 128-133 A.H.), a freed slave of
Umm Salmah, received his instruction in Qur'anic recitation from 'Abd Allah ibn 'Ayyash,
ibn 'Abbas and Abu Hurayrah.
18 Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Basri al-Hadrami (d. 205 A.H.) was a scholar and reciter on the
authority of Salam ibn Sulayman, 'Asim al-Sulami and 'Ali ibn Abi Talib.
19 Khalaf ibn Hisham al-Bazzaz (d. 229 A.H.) was a rawi of Hamzah. He studied under
Malik ibn Anas and Hammad ibn Zayd and his pupil was Abu 'Awanah.
20 See al-Majlisi, Bihar al-anwar (section on Qur'an); al-Fayd al-Kashani, al-Safi
(introductory matter); al-Suyuti, al-Itqan, vol. 1, p.47.
21 Al-Suyuti, op. cit., vol. 1, p. 82.
22 Al-Suyuti, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 171.
References:
THE QUR'AN IN ISLAM
Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims
'Allamah Sayyid M. H. Tabataba'i |
